Culture — India

Indian culture is probably the world's most complex and dense — the product of 5,000 years of continuous history, four major native religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism), Islam brought in the 8th century and magnified by the Mughal Empire, Christianity implanted in Goa by the Portuguese in the 16th century, 22 official languages and hundreds of dialects, 28 states with profoundly distinct cultures, cuisines and architectures.

Hinduism, practised by 80% of the population (1.1 billion Hindus in India, 95% of the world's Hindus), structures society and urbanism. Polytheism with 33 million principal deities — Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver (with his 10 avatars including Rama and Krishna), Shiva the destroyer, elephant-headed Ganesh, monkey Hanuman, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswati — ancestor worship, massive pilgrimages (Kumbh Mela at Allahabad-Prayagraj draws up to 200 million people every 12 years, the largest human gathering on the planet), reincarnation and karma as structuring principles, untouchable sacred cow, cremation ghats at Varanasi where ashes are dispersed in the Ganges. The traveller discovers a religion lived daily in the street, everywhere — morning pujas, marigolds at doorways, blown conches, incense, temple bells, deity processions.

The caste system, officially abolished by the 1950 Constitution (Dr Ambedkar, himself a Dalit, was its principal architect), remains culturally persistent — 4 major castes (varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) and the fifth Dalit category ("untouchables", today called Scheduled Castes, 17% of population) still face discrimination in villages. Adivasi (tribal peoples, 8%) constitute another category. Massive affirmative action policy (reservations in education and public employment).

Islam (14%, 200 million Muslims — India hosts the world's 3rd-largest Muslim population after Indonesia and Pakistan) has deeply marked architecture (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Qutub Minar, Jama Masjid), music (qawwali, ghazal), gastronomy (biryani, kebab, korma) and urban culture of the north. Sikhism (2%, 25 million) is concentrated in Punjab — Golden Temple of Amritsar as spiritual heart. Buddhism was born in India (Bodh Gaya, Bihar, where Buddha attained enlightenment in the 6th century BCE) but is marginal today (0.7%) — survives in Ladakh (Tibetan Buddhism) and Dharamsala (seat of the Dalai Lama in exile since 1959). Jainism (0.4%, but massive economic influence) — sublime temples at Ranakpur, Mount Abu, Palitana. Christianity (2.3%, 28 million) — Portuguese heritage at Goa (Baroque cathedrals, Bom Jesus Basilica with St Francis Xavier's body), ancient Syriac in Kerala (St Thomas Christians, since the 1st century).

Indian classical music (Hindustani in the north, Carnatic in the south) is one of the world's most sophisticated musical traditions — raga (melodic mode), tala (rhythmic cycle), sitar (Ravi Shankar globally famous), tabla, sarod, bansuri (flute), tampura, solo voice. Classical dance comprises eight recognised forms (Bharatanatyam Tamil, Kathak North, Odissi Odisha, spectacular Kathakali Kerala with elaborate makeup, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam, Kuchipudi, Sattriya). Cinema is one of the world's great cultural industries — Bollywood (Mumbai, Hindi films) produces 1,800-2,000 films per year, more than Hollywood, reaching 4 billion viewers worldwide (India + diaspora). Bollywood, Tollywood (Telugu), Kollywood (Tamil), Mollywood (Malayalam), Sandalwood (Kannada) together form the world's most prolific film industry.

Festivals pace the year. Diwali (late October-early November): festival of lights, the most important Hindu festival, illuminations everywhere. Holi (mid-March): festival of colours, joyful and chaotic. Durga Puja / Navratri (October): celebration of goddess Durga, spectacular in Bengal. Ganesh Chaturthi (September): Mumbai immerses giant statues of the elephant god in the sea. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha: major Muslim celebrations. Pongal (Tamil Nadu, January): harvest festival. Onam (Kerala, August-September): 10 days of festivities, boat parade, sadya banquets on banana leaves.